Emilio Aguinaldo, born on March 22/23, 1869, near Cavite, Luzon, was of Chinese and Tagalog descent. He attended San Juan de Letrán College in Manila but left school early to help his widowed mother manage the family farm. By his late twenties, Aguinaldo was elected mayor of Cavite Viejo (now Kawit), where he became active in the Katipunan, a secret revolutionary society determined to overthrow Spanish colonial rule.
In August 1896, the Philippine Revolution erupted. Aguinaldo’s forces won key battles against the Spaniards in Cavite, establishing him as a rising revolutionary leader. However, mounting casualties and political divisions led Aguinaldo to sign the Pact of Biac-na-Bató (December 1897), under which he agreed to exile in Hong Kong in exchange for promises of reform and financial compensation from Spain.
Return to the Philippines and the 1898 Revolution
While in exile, Aguinaldo established contact with U.S. representatives and Commodore George Dewey during the Spanish-American War. He returned to the Philippines on May 19, 1898, resuming the independence struggle.
On June 12, 1898, Aguinaldo declared Philippine independence in Kawit, Cavite. The act was followed by the establishment of a provisional revolutionary government. In September, the revolutionary congress ratified independence, and by January 23, 1899, the Malolos Constitution was proclaimed. Aguinaldo was elected first president of the Philippine Republic, making him Asia’s first democratically elected head of state.
Philippine-American War (1899–1901)
Tensions with the United States, which acquired the Philippines from Spain through the Treaty of Paris (December 1898), escalated into open conflict on February 4, 1899, with the outbreak of the Philippine-American War.
Aguinaldo led the Filipino resistance, initially through conventional battles and later by guerrilla warfare. Despite determined fighting, Filipino forces were overwhelmed by superior U.S. resources. On March 23, 1901, Aguinaldo was captured in his headquarters at Palanan, northern Luzon, by forces under Gen. Frederick Funston.
He subsequently swore allegiance to the United States, was granted a pension, and retired from active politics.
Political Career and World War II
Aguinaldo attempted a political comeback in 1935, running for president in the first Philippine Commonwealth election. He was decisively defeated by Manuel L. Quezon, reflecting his declining popularity.
During the Japanese occupation (1942–1945), Aguinaldo was used as a propaganda tool, delivering speeches and appeals—most notably urging Gen. Douglas MacArthur to surrender at Corregidor. Though controversial, Aguinaldo insisted after the war that his cooperation was coerced.
In 1945, after the U.S. liberation of the Philippines, he was arrested for collaboration but released under amnesty. By 1950, President Elpidio Quirino appointed him to the Council of State, symbolically restoring his national status.
Later Years and Legacy
In his later life, Aguinaldo dedicated himself to veterans’ affairs, promoting Philippine nationalism, and fostering Philippine-U.S. relations. He lived to witness full Philippine independence on July 4, 1946.
Aguinaldo died on February 6, 1964, in Quezon City, at the age of 94. He was the last surviving major figure of the Philippine Revolution and the first president of the Philippines, remembered both as a hero of independence and a controversial wartime collaborator.
Historical Assessment
Emilio Aguinaldo’s legacy is complex. He is celebrated as the leader of the Philippine Revolution, the architect of the First Philippine Republic, and a symbol of resistance against colonialism. Yet, his later actions—his surrender to the United States and collaboration under Japanese rule—have sparked debate.
Nevertheless, his pivotal role in establishing the Philippines as the first constitutional democracy in Asia ensures his place as one of the most significant figures in Philippine history.
