The Age of Enlightenment (18th century) revolutionized how people viewed the world through the lens of empiricism and rational thought. Science, embedded with the Enlightenment ideals of progress and advancement, took center stage, transforming disciplines such as astronomy, chemistry, and the emerging social sciences.
Key Scientific Advancements
- Astronomy: Building on the discoveries of Copernicus, Kepler, and Newton, 18th-century astronomers refined telescopes and made groundbreaking discoveries. William Herschel’s discovery of Uranus in 1781, and James Bradley’s estimation of the speed of light, were key developments that advanced the understanding of the universe.
- Chemistry: The 18th century saw the chemical revolution, including the establishment of the law of conservation of mass and the oxygen theory of combustion, largely credited to Antoine Lavoisier. His discovery of oxygen and hydrogen changed the way scientists understood chemical reactions, replacing the outdated phlogiston theory.
The “Science of Man”
Scottish Enlightenment thinkers like David Hume pioneered the “science of man”, which examined human behavior through empirical methods. Hume argued that passion, rather than reason, governs human actions and dismissed the idea of innate knowledge. These ideas laid the groundwork for modern sociology and psychology.
Social Sciences and Economics
Adam Smith’s The Wealth of Nations (1776) became the foundational text of modern economics, promoting ideas of free markets and economic policy that continue to influence the world today. Simultaneously, Cesare Beccaria’s On Crimes and Punishments (1764) reformed criminal justice, advocating for the abolition of torture and the death penalty.
Scientific Publications
The Enlightenment era marked the birth of scientific and literary journals that disseminated knowledge. Journals like the Journal des Sçavans allowed for the exchange of ideas, challenging traditional authorities and promoting scientific inquiry.
The scientific advancements of the Enlightenment not only redefined natural sciences but also fostered the rise of social sciences, economics, and criminal justice reform, shaping the modern intellectual landscape.